Dome of the Rock

 

The base of the dome, Dome of the Rock, 687, Jerusalem 

In the 7th century C.E., the Dome of the Rock was built in Jerusalem. This dome was the first and oldest Islamic monument, used as a shrine even to this day. The artwork on the walls is aniconic, specific to avoid idolatry, with decorations of flowers, plants, swirls, instead of people or animals. Within the artwork of the Dome, there are noted influences from Sassanian, Coptic, and Byzantine art styles. This is important to note because it shows how underdeveloped the style of Islamic art was, this was during a time period where Islamic art was just beginning to emerge. While the original purpose of the dome is debated constantly, it is believed to have been the site where the Islamic prophet Muhammed ascended to heaven, while in Jewish traditions, this site is believed to be the location where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son, Isaac.  While this building is not a mosque, it is a shrine and is continuously used for public worship just like how it was in the 7th century. 

Despite its age, it has been modernized well through the times, which brings us to the point of why it remains important today. Unlike other monuments and ancient places of worship, the Dome of the Rock is not a tourist attraction (despite tourists coming to visit it). It is used actively by worshippers and shows the continuation of religious practices of people of the Islamic faith. It is a part of cultural and religious growth for the area of Jerusalem. Societies don't randomly create monuments or large structured places of worship without a reason, these places are usually created because the society surrounding it believes that it is something to be honored and remembered in their history, which provides insight further down the road of the culture's existence. If you can comprehend the meaning of the monument or religious structure, you can begin to piece together the mindset and cultural normalities for the people who lived so many years ago. Not only do they represent history, but they also link the continuers of a certain culture to their past.

Sources: 

Glenna Barlow, "Arts of the Islamic world: The early period," in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015, accessed 

            September 25, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/arts-of-the-islamic-world-the-early-period/.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Dome of the Rock.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., August 5, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dome-of-the-Rock.

Mamluk Jar

 

Mamluk Jar, 14th Century (Produced in Syria) Mamluk S

The Mamluk sovereignty began to emerge out of a weakened Ayyubid rule in Egypt and Syria, starting in around 1250, known as the Mamluk because of their unusual political system. While other civilizations used slaves, the Mamluk sultanate was the first to incorporate slaves into the governing class of society. This unusual incorporation of slaves into governance is what set them apart, hence why historians refer to them as the Mamluk sultanate, meaning "slave sultanate". The overall reign of this sultanate is divided into two periods, the Bahri reign, and the Burji reign. This piece of artwork was from the Burji reign, 1382 to 1517. The sultans from this time period followed the artistic traditions from the previous Bahri reign, of enameled and gilded glass, inlaid metalwork, woodwork, and textiles. This jar was a white piece of fritware (also known as stonepaste- a ceramic that is mixed with silica, clay, and frit) with blue and black glaze. The only other design on this piece besides the blue and black decorations is a large inscription saying: Lasting glory, increasing prosperity, and good fortune, an uplifting quote considering the plague, civil strife, and famine that provided continual distress to the citizens of this time period. To determine why artwork from this time period is important, we must understand how day to day art such as a jar can affect other places around the world. Mamluk art was prized around the world, most specifically in Europe and Mediterranean countries, where local productions began to mimic the art style of the Mamluk. This is important because a rippling effect occurs. When you have influences of one culture on another, it speaks to their cultural communication and how certain cultural practices and styles come about overtime that may appear unusual in its history of art if you do not realize that one culture was sharing with another. A simple jar can go from looking like a pretty decorative piece that you see in a museum to a link between cultures and their communication, learning things we haven't before. That's why this simple jar is so important to history, it not only provides insight into the culture it originated from, but also provides history to how things evolved in other countries and cultures. 

Sources: 

Glenna Barlow, "Arts of the Islamic world: The medieval period," in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015, accessed September 23, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/arts-of-the-islamic-world-the-medieval-period/. 

“Jar.” metmuseum.org. The Met. Accessed September 24, 2020. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/444477.

Yalman, Suzman. “The Art of the Mamluk Period (1250–1517).” metmuseum.org. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, October 2001. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/maml/hd_maml.htm.

The Colossus of Constantine

 

The Colossus of Constantine, 312-315 C.E., Roman Empire

Constantine was an interesting emperor of the Roman Empire. He did not grow up being a successor to a throne or high class enough to be considered a lord, but he somehow became the emperor of the Roman Empire. As his father rose up the political ladder until obtaining Caesar status (Essentially becoming Vice Emperor) in the Eastern half of the empire, Constantine was a member of the Imperial court, becoming a politician as well as a warrior. When Emperors Diocletian and Maximian relinquished the thrones, and when Constantine's father relinquished his throne, Constantine did not become emperor. Instead, Constantine remained in the imperial court, passed over as another person was selected for the title of Emperor. Following a series of wars, betrayals, suicides, and politics, Constantine ended up on the throne of both halves of the empire by 324 C.E. After bringing the empire back together, Constantine changed the capital of the empire, moving it from Rome to Constantinople. This is when the empire began a new turning point, changing in culture and beliefs. This statue here is simply a piece of a gigantic statue of Constantine, estimated to be built around 312 - 315 C.E., carved out of white marble. The body of the sculpture was brick with wooden framework, covered in bronze. The whole sculpture itself is estimated to be around 12 meters tall (40 ft) while the head itself is 2.43 meters (8 ft). Originally it may have looked like this: 

Reconstruction of the Colossus in the Basilica Nova by the University of Virginia 

The purpose as to why this was built can only be speculated because there are no documents defining why it was built. If it was built in a celebration of him, if he requested it built to show the power of the empire, or if it was erected to display his importance in changing the empire, we cannot tell. What we do know, is that Constantine changed the Roman Empire. For years, Rome was a pagan empire, believing in multiple gods that reflected the Greek Pantheon but with different titles. Constantine believed that God guided him and allowed him to become the emperor of not just one half of the empire, but the whole entirety. Believing such, he enforced a change in religion, not only causing an end to pagan traditions in Rome but set down the footwork of how we see Medival Europe develop later on. That is why this piece is important. It provides a benchmark time of when cultures and lives began to change, being a reference point to so many other changes in the world. This statue being built caused a rippling effect, seemingly immediately after it was built there was a shift in art, where we begin to see a cultural allowance to create art depicting religious events and figures of Christianity that we didn't see before. 

Sources:

“The Colossus of Constantine.” Joy of Museums Virtual Tours, June 8, 2020. https://joyofmuseums.com/museums/europe/italy-museums/rome-museums/capitoline-museums/the-colossus-of-constantine/.

“Colossus of Constantine.” The Byzantine Legacy. Accessed September 18, 2020. https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/colossus-constantine.

Matthews, J.F., and Donald MacGillivray Nicol. “Constantine I.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., May 18, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Constantine-I-Roman-emperor.

Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, "The Colossus of Constantine," in Smarthistory, December 9, 2015, accessed September 18, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/the-colossus-of-constantine/.

Roman Funerary Art (Rome Production)

 

Roman Sarcophagi, 110–120 A.D. Artist Unknown, Manufactured in the city of Rome (Roman Empire)

The Romans took death very seriously, they treated all of their death with respect and honor, each getting buried in their own sarcophagi when they left this plane of existence. A sarcophagus was used for inhumation burials, which simply means to bury the dead. Before the rise of the Roman Empire, the common death ritual was to cremate bodies and keep them in urns, until the second-century C.E., when Romans began to adopt more Greek and Etruscan cultures into their daily lives, thus creating the ideal of inhumation burial. This sarcophagus specifically was a production of the city of Rome, important to note because of the fact that each production center had a different viewpoint on how the sarcophagi should be decorated, where it should be placed, and how it should be made. Rome specifically made their sarcophagi with flat, rectangular lids, decorated only on the front and the sides, while Athens on the other hand produced sarcophagi with decoration on all four sides and the appearance of a gabled roof. Because the Romans occupying the city of Rome kept their dead in mausolea, only the front and the two sides were visible to visitors, making the decoration hold a purely aesthetic purpose in contrast to cultures that bury their dead with symbology to help protect them and things of that nature. The status of the person was carved into their sarcophagus, the more wealthy and high ranking class they were, the more it was elaborately carved and designed. Elitists in Rome preferred to appear high class and well knowledged, carving Greek mythical imagery on their sarcophagi instead of depicting typical art of leaves and fruit which were designed to further the aesthetic appeal of a mausoleum for visitors, having the sarcophagi practically blend into the wall so you did not know you were coming to visit the dead. This is important because it shows the cultural influence that death and the expectation of death upon individuals. It provides an insight into how they did not view death as an ending, but rather an extension of themselves, a way to further glorify their status and social ranking for the world to see. Instead of simply carving their name and date of birth and date of death, they carved elaborate stories, couples holding one another, victories of a battle, hunting, all providing a piece into their lives that were significant to them and their view on the world that would otherwise be forgotten if not carven into the marble they were buried in. 

Sources:

Awan, Heather T. “Roman Sarcophagi.” metmuseum.org, April 2007. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rsar/hd_rsar.htm.

Dr. Jessica Leay Ambler, "Introduction to ancient Roman art," in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015, accessed September 16, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/introduction-to-ancient-roman-art/. 

Winged Victory of Samothrace (Nike of Samothrace)

The Winged Victory of Samothrace, Estimated: 323 BCE-31 CE, Artist Unknown

The Winged Victory of Samothrace, also known as the Nike of Samothrace, is a Hellenistic marble sculpture of the Greek Goddess Nike sculpted around 190 B.C.E,. Standing 18 feet tall, she is depicted standing in triumph at the bow of a ship, the marble appearing to be cloth clinging to a wet body. Like other statues sculpted during this time period, there is an intense focus on realism, making you believe that the sculpture was moving and halted in time. Analyzing the sculpture, you will find that her weight looks naturally distributed on her legs, a classical depiction of vigor and triumph that you see in Hellenistic sculptures. Ninety years after discovering the statue, a piece of her hand was found. Archaeologists believed her hand would be in a fist as if holding something but instead, her hand was opened and extended looking as if greeting someone. Despite this, it is believed to be a sculpture to commemorate a successful sea battle on the island of Rhodes given the way her body stance is depicted, wide-winged, and dramatically stepping forward. Before being excavated, this statue stood proudly on the Greek island, Samothrace, in the northern Aegean Sea, over an artificial lake (for a more dramatic effect).  This island was the home of Poseidon during the Trojan War, leading the people to view it as a safe haven from the dangers of the sea. To ensure their protection, the Samothrace people built a sanctuary for the gods, erecting sculptures of several sea oriented sculptures such as the Winged Victory, important ships from battles, and even columns with sea-like decoration on them. Knowing this, we are provided an insight into how the ancient world viewed the Samothrace people. Because of the Samothrace's written history of being visited by gods, large city projects were carried out on the island, and Greek-ambassadors were allowed to permanently reside on the island and carry out the wills of the people during the Roman occupation during the time. Not only was it a very important sculpture during the time of creation, but it still is an important sculpture today, holding a piece of remembrance for eternity. The sculpture now is visited by over 15,000 people a day and sits in the Louvre museum in Paris, France.

Sources:

Cartwright, Mark. “Samothrace.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia, July 7, 2016. https://www.ancient.eu/Samothrace/.

Richman-Abdou, Kelly. “This Armless Sculpture Is One of the Louvre's Most Treasured Masterpieces.” My Modern Met, September 8, 2020. https://mymodernmet.com/winged-victory-of-samothrace/.

The British Museum, "Ancient Greece, an introduction," in Smarthistory, February 28, 2017, accessed September 11, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/ancient-greece-an-introduction/.

Alabaster Cinerary Urn

                  Alabaster cinerary Urn

 3rd century B.C., Artist Unknown, Etruscan Culture

Long before the village of Rome became famous, the centralized culture of Italy was that of Etruscan. They were never a unified state of civilization, so it is important to emphasize that the Etruscans were not a civilization despite meeting several criteria of being one. One of the important characteristics is the centralized government and cities, which to our knowledge, they did not have.  What we do know, is that the Etruscans flourished between 800-300 B.C.E., their rich mineral resources, and trading power making them able to focus on things such as art. Because there are not many remains in terms of writings, we do not know much about their day to day culture, what they did, their thoughts, their economics. What we do know, is that Etruscan art is very expressive and energetic. Unfortunately,  because of their conquering by the Romans, the Etruscan language and culture ceased to exist. Despite being absorbed with Roman culture, their greatest legacies are their funerary works of art and remains of burial rituals. This funeral based art includes tomb paintings and beautiful sculptures of mythology surrounding urns. 

This piece of art is known as the Alabaster Cinerary Urn. The woman on top of the lid is relaxed and elaborately dressed with a large necklace around her neck and a fan in her hand. The bottom of the urn is very intriguing compared to the lid of the urn. The bottom half depicts a battle, a pair of warriors fighting warlike women, called Amazons through Greek Mythology, and the Etruscan demon of death, Vanth. What is very intriguing to me is that Vanth is not a punisher of the dead, how demons are usually depicted in doing. But rather, she is depicted as a caring figure, taking the dead to care for them, with broad wings coming out of her back. The urn could be described as a final act of care for the deceased, with Vanth looking over their ashes allowing them to have a relaxed and leisure filled afterlife as depicted in the relaxed woman on the lid.

One of the main reasons why this not only an interesting piece of art but an important one as well, is the extensive nature that the Etruscans went through to ritualistically bury their dead. Not only were they buried in tombs, but they were also buried with goods. And not just some coins and a satchel of fruit, but things like their beds, their baby cradles, things you typically don't see with burial rituals. Because their funeral art is one of the only remaining indicators of their culture, it is important to try and understand the cause for the art to understand their rituals and practices because we do not the literary resources and evidence to study it outside of the realm of art.

Sources: 

Cartwright, Mark. “Amazon Women.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia, September 19, 2020. https://www.ancient.eu/amazon/.

Cartwright, Mark. “Etruscan Art.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia, Accessed September 9, 2020. https://www.ancient.eu/Etruscan_Art/.

Etruscan. “Alabaster Cinerary Urn: Etruscan: Hellenistic: The Met.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed 9 September 2020. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/246269.

Hemingway, Colette. “Etruscan Art | Essay.” metmuseum.org, October 2004. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/etru/hd_etru.htm.

The Uruk Bull (Week 2 Discussion)

 

Fragment of a bowl with a frieze of bulls in relief (3300–2900 B.C.E) Artist Unknown, the Uruk Culture

For years, Mesopotamia has been the center of civilization. Hunting, fishing, farming, religious practices, are believed to have started in this region. Uruk, commonly known as The First City, played a key role in the starting urbanization of Mesopotamia. Not only did Uruk become the center of urbanization, but it also became one of the most important religious centers during this time. The city was constantly inhabited from as early as 5,000 B.C.E. to the 5th century C.E. Because of how long the culture of the Uruk has influenced lives, it is important to analyze the remains of their civilization to understand why cities began to urbanize and socialize the way they did. 

To understand the artwork above, we need to fully comprehend the pantheon surrounding the Mesopotamian region. One of the most prestigious gods of this pantheon was Marduk, a deity known for compassion, healing, fairness, magic, and sometimes even worshipped for agriculture and storms. The beginning of his name is linked to bull figures, Marru meaning 'bull-calf'. Linking this, the bull was considered sacred in Mesopotamian cultures, being a figurine of divinity to the people of the time. This artwork here is a piece of a bowl depicting a procession of bulls though, only one full-body image of a bull has survived over the years. The artwork is fully three-dimensional, developed at the end of the fourth millennium B.C.E. This is important to note because art being this fully rendered and holding an anatomically well-depicting nature is uncommon for this early time period. Artwork during this time period usually depicts exaggerated features such as an oversized head, shortened limbs, or widened legs, none of this is what we see here on the bowl. The bowl was made of steatite, commonly known as soapstone, and chlorite, a sheet mineral usually green in color with an oily feel to it. Fragments similar to this piece have been found in palaces and religious places, giving the thought that these bowls were used in rituals of some kind. Given the historical background with the Mesopotamian pantheon, one can hypothesize that these bowls were of religious rituals, possibly used in crowning ceremonies of kings and used in day to day blessings of important individuals. 

  Citations: 

“Fragment of a Bowl with a Frieze of Bulls in Relief.” Metmuseum.org, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324111.

“The History of Uruk.” Uruk Project, Western Sydney University, staff.cdms.westernsydney.edu.au/~anton/Research/Uruk_Project/History.html.

Mark, Joshua J. “Marduk.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, www.ancient.eu/Marduk/.